======Regulatory Capital======
Regulatory capital is the minimum amount of capital a bank or other financial institution is required to hold by its financial regulator. Think of it as a mandatory financial safety cushion. Its primary purpose is to ensure that a bank can absorb a reasonable amount of unexpected losses before it becomes insolvent, thereby protecting the bank's depositors and the broader financial system from a domino-like collapse. Following the 2008 financial crisis, regulators like the [[Federal Reserve]] in the U.S. and the [[European Central Bank]] in Europe significantly tightened these capital requirements to create a more resilient banking sector. For an investor, understanding regulatory capital isn't just an academic exercise; it's a fundamental tool for assessing the risk and health of any potential investment in a financial company. A well-capitalized bank is a fortress; a poorly capitalized one is a house of cards.
===== Why Should a Value Investor Care? =====
Legendary investor [[Warren Buffett]] loves investing in banks, but only those with strong, durable business models and robust balance sheets. At the heart of a robust balance sheet is a thick layer of regulatory capital. Here’s why it’s critical for value investors:
  * **Survival and Resilience:** A bank with capital far exceeding the regulatory minimum can withstand severe economic storms. It has a buffer to absorb loan losses during a recession without risking failure. A thinly capitalized bank, however, might be forced to raise money at the worst possible time by issuing new [[equity]]. This dilutes existing shareholders, often permanently damaging their investment returns.
  * **Profitability and Growth:** A bank's ability to lend, grow, and innovate is directly tied to its capital position. Surplus capital allows a bank to seize opportunities, such as acquiring a weaker rival or expanding into new markets.
  * **Shareholder Returns:** Regulators often restrict a bank's ability to pay [[dividends]] or buy back its own stock if it doesn't maintain a sufficient capital buffer above the minimum requirements. For investors seeking income and a return of capital, a bank’s capital ratios are a direct gateway to those cash flows.
In short, a cheap-looking bank stock is a classic //value trap// if the institution is under-capitalized. True value lies in safe, resilient banks that can survive a crisis and thrive in its aftermath.
===== The Building Blocks of Regulatory Capital =====
Regulatory capital isn't one single lump of money; it's structured in tiers of quality, like the different layers of armor on a knight. The international framework that governs this structure is known as [[Basel III]].
==== Tier 1 Capital: The Core Cushion ====
This is the highest-quality capital, representing a bank's core strength. It's designed to absorb losses on a "going-concern" basis, meaning the bank can take a hit without having to stop its operations.
=== Common Equity Tier 1 (CET1) ===
This is the purest and most important form of capital. If a bank gets into trouble, [[Common Equity Tier 1 (CET1)]] is the first line of defense that absorbs losses. It primarily consists of:
  * **[[Common stock]]**: The value of shares sold to the public.
  * **[[Retained earnings]]**: The cumulative profits the bank has reinvested back into its business over the years. This is a powerful sign of a bank's long-term profitability and prudence.
The most-watched metric for investors is the **[[CET1 ratio]]**, calculated as: CET1 Capital / [[Risk-Weighted Assets (RWA)]]. A higher ratio signals a safer, better-capitalized bank.
=== Additional Tier 1 (AT1) ===
[[Additional Tier 1 (AT1)]] is the next layer of defense. It includes financial instruments that are not common equity but can still absorb losses. A famous example is [[Contingent convertible bonds (CoCos)]]. These are special bonds that automatically convert into equity or get written down if the bank's CET1 ratio falls below a pre-set trigger level. They are an emergency buffer, designed to shore up the bank's defenses just when it needs them most.
==== Tier 2 Capital: The Secondary Buffer ====
[[Tier 2 Capital]] is a supplementary layer that absorbs losses on a "gone-concern" basis. This means it's only used if the bank fails and is being wound up. It serves to protect depositors and senior creditors, but by the time Tier 2 capital is used, the common shareholders have typically lost everything. It includes instruments like [[subordinated debt]], which ranks below deposits and other senior debt in a liquidation.
===== Putting It All Together: The Capital Ratio =====
To truly understand a bank's capital strength, you must understand the denominator in the capital ratio equation: Risk-Weighted Assets (RWA). Regulators recognize that not all bank assets carry the same risk. A loan to the German government is far safer than a speculative [[real estate]] development loan.
Therefore, each asset on a bank's balance sheet is assigned a "risk weight." A government bond might have a 0% risk weight, while an unsecured personal loan might have a 100% risk weight. The bank's total assets are multiplied by these weights to get the RWA figure.
**The Key Formula:** Capital Ratio = Capital / Risk-Weighted Assets (RWA)
A bank may have to meet several minimum ratios (e.g., a 4.5% CET1 ratio, a 6% Tier 1 ratio, and an 8% Total Capital ratio). However, a value investor should look for banks that maintain a **significant buffer** above these minimums. A bank with a 12% CET1 ratio is in a much stronger position to navigate uncertainty and reward shareholders than one hovering at 5%.
===== The Big Picture: Basel Accords =====
The global rules for regulatory capital are set by the [[Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS)]], a group of central bankers and regulators from around the world. These rules are known as the [[Basel Accords]].
  * **[[Basel I]]**: The original accord from 1988, which established the first basic capital requirements.
  * **[[Basel II]]**: An update in 2004 that introduced more sophisticated risk-weighting.
  * **[[Basel III]]**: A comprehensive set of reforms developed in response to the 2008 financial crisis. It significantly increased both the quantity and quality of capital banks must hold, with a strong emphasis on CET1.
These accords create a global standard, ensuring that banks in different countries are subject to similar rigorous standards of safety and soundness. For investors, this framework provides a reliable and comparable way to assess the fundamental risk of banks across the globe.